From Lao Tzu to Confucianism: The Evolution of Ancient Thought on Sexuality and Men's Health

Sex and reproduction are inherently biological attributes of humans. However, once imbued with philosophical concepts, they acquire cultural significance and exert a dominant influence on sexual and reproductive behaviors. Since ancient times, sex, reproduction, and male health have been closely linked to almost every aspect of human social life, encompassing a wide range of fields including anthropology, archaeology, biology, folklore, ethics, medicine, philosophy, religion, and art. Lao Tzu was a thinker and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period in my country, the founder of Taoism, and the progenitor of Chinese health preservation. His representative work is the renowned *Tao Te Ching*, consisting of 81 chapters and 5,000 characters. Its main academic viewpoints are the "natural way of Heaven" and "governing by non-action." Lao Tzu approached the objective world with a simple dialectical philosophy, believing that the generation and change of all things is a unity of "being" and "non-being" (the mutual generation of being and non-being), with "non-being" being the most fundamental. Based on the "natural way of Heaven," chapters 10, 50, and 55 of the *Tao Te Ching* focus on the issues of health preservation and longevity. "Man follows the Earth, Earth follows Heaven, Heaven follows the Tao, and the Tao follows Nature" is a Taoist principle of health preservation applied to the human body's development, derived from insights into the changes of the universe. "All things carry Yin and embrace Yang, and through the interaction of these two energies, harmony is achieved," illustrating that the only way to longevity is for humans to achieve a balance of Yin and Yang, conforming to the laws of nature. Based on this principle, Lao Tzu advocated "desirelessness" regarding the relationship between sex and male health; without desire, there is no seeking, and without seeking, there is no trouble. Lao Tzu's view of "desirelessness" has had a profound influence on later generations; both idealism and materialism have drawn inspiration from the *Tao Te Ching*.

Zhuangzi (whose given name was Zhou), one of the pre-Qin philosophers, systematically elaborated on Laozi's principles of health preservation, emphasizing "nourishing essence and moderating desires." He believed that "sages value essence"; "one must be pure and tranquil, without weary your body or agitated your essence, then one can live long"; "if the body is overworked without rest, it will be exhausted; if the essence is used without ceasing, it will be depleted." These are all important means to "preserve one's body, maintain one's life, care for one's parents, and live out one's full lifespan," and "live out one's natural lifespan without dying prematurely." Zhuangzi believed that true happiness lies in tranquility and non-action, the so-called "ultimate happiness is no happiness."

The Confucian school, represented by Confucius and Mencius, held a relatively objective and tolerant attitude towards sex and male health. Confucianism affirmed the rationality of sexual desire, stating, "Food and sex are the greatest desires of humankind"; "Food and sex are human nature." However, Confucianism believed that while sexual desire was reasonable, it should be controlled. "Alas! I have never seen anyone who loves virtue as much as he loves beauty," therefore, it must be restrained. In the late Warring States period, Xunzi (whose given name was Kuang) developed the Confucian view of moderation, believing that human desires were a natural principle: "Nature is what Heaven bestows; emotions are the substance of nature; desires are the response of emotions." Xunzi acknowledged the natural rationality of human desires while advocating guiding them onto the right path and exercising reasonable restraint. He proposed the standard of "moderation," which meant that desires should conform to the established moral norms of society. The *Lüshi Chunqiu* absorbed the Confucian view of moderation and further developed it: "Those who are good at governing can enable people to have endless desires, therefore, the things that can be used by people are also endless." The more desires a person has, the more opportunities they can use; the fewer desires a person has, the fewer opportunities they can use; if there are no desires, then there is nothing to use. This illustrates that human needs and desires are the driving force for progress. Therefore, all human desires and needs should be based on the premise of "valuing life"; desires that are harmful to "life" should be restrained.

At the same time, a hedonistic view centered on "pleasure" and "self-interest" also emerged. A representative figure was Yang Zhu (also known as Yang Ziju or Yang Sheng), a Daoist from the early Warring States period. He strongly advocated indulgence and unrestrained pleasure, believing that desire was a natural need and should be "fulfilled to the fullest extent"; life was short, so one should seize the day; death was the same for everyone, regardless of status or wealth, and one should enjoy life to the fullest, saying, "To die under a peony is to die a romantic death." Clearly, the core of his theory was "self-interest." Therefore, Mencius criticized Yang Zhu for "not even plucking a single hair to benefit the world." Yang Zhu's hedonistic view had a significant influence on later generations.

The views on sex and men's health-namely, abstinence, moderation, and indulgence-have had a profound impact on the lives of the Chinese people. Throughout history, these three views have both struggled and intertwined, with people of different classes and statuses using them to their advantage.

The purpose of presenting this historical material is to learn from history. There are at least three recurring historical lessons worth remembering.

One point is that social control involving sex is always "forbidden on the lower classes but not on the upper classes." For thousands of years, the ruling class has often used etiquette, abstinence, and other norms to strictly restrict the sexual and marital behavior of the people; while they themselves indulge in debauchery and act recklessly, forming a stark contrast and exposing their hypocritical face of not speaking their minds.

Another point is that discussions about sex and sexual health for thousands of years have been focused on men, with women merely playing a supporting role. Moreover, male health has come at the expense of women. For example, the "yin-yang replenishment" practices promoted in traditional Chinese sexual theories are immoral acts that harm others for personal gain. All of these reflect a "male-centric" mentality, which is completely different from the current advocacy for male health.

Thirdly, while traditional theories of sex and men's health have a long history and profound influence, containing much scientifically sound content, they also contain a considerable amount of pseudoscience or even ignorant dross. This cultural heritage should be approached with a historical materialist attitude, inheriting the essence and discarding the dross, to serve contemporary sexual and men's health.